Date: 22 August 2024, Author: Paulina Natalia Jarocińska

Polish research on nuclear energy: From Marie Skłodowska-Curie to the present

The history of nuclear energy research in Poland is inextricably linked with the life and achievements of Maria Skłodowska-Curie, one of the most influential scientists in history.

Photo: Shutterstock.com

Introduction

The history of nuclear energy research in Poland is inextricably linked with the life and achievements of Maria Skłodowska-Curie, one of the most influential scientists in history. Her discoveries in the field of radioactivity laid the foundations for the development of nuclear energy. Contemporary research projects in Poland, continuing her legacy, aim not only at the advancement of nuclear technologies but also at ensuring safe and sustainable energy.

Maria Skłodowska-Curie was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, which was then part of the Russian Empire. She was the fifth and youngest child. For generations, the family has had a lot to do with science. Maria’s grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, attended the University of Warsaw and subsequently took on the role of director at a prestigious high school in Lublin, where he distinguished himself as an outstanding teacher of physics and chemistry. Her mother, Bronisława, taught foreign languages and was the headmistress of a girls’ school, and her father, Władysław – a graduate of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, was a professor of mathematics and physics. From an early age, Maria showed extraordinary abilities and interest in science[1].

Diffcult path to success

After her father lost all his savings and took care of the children himself after his wife’s death, Maria took initiative and started working as a teacher to provide financial support for her family. At the same time, she attended clandestine classes in anatomy, biology, and sociology, all conducted in Polish. Additionally, she paritcipated in specializied training in chemical analysis in the Museum of Industry and Agriculture in Warsaw, gaining hands-on research experience[2].

Maria and her sister Bronisława were motivated and ambitious to obtain a degree, but it was impossible for women to study at Polish universities in the occupied territory. In the years 1884–1885, she studied at a secret higher school for women, called the “Flying University”, which was an informal educational institution that operated in Poland under partition and in the interwar period. Its goal was to conduct lectures and courses at the university level, especially in conditions when formal educational institutions were limited or closed by the partitioning authorities. In 1891, Maria finally moved to Paris to study at the Sorbonne and attended lectures by notable professors such as Paul Appel, Gabriel Lippmann, or Edmond Bouty[3].

By 1893, Maria had graduated from the Sorbonne, achieving the top rank in her bachelor of physical sciences. She returned to Warsaw, seeking employment at universities in Warsaw and Kraków (including the Jagiellonian University) which was unsuccessful due to the prevailing reluctance of European universities to hire female graduates at the time. Subsequently, she received the Aleksandrowicz family scholarship, typically awarded to exceptional students studying abroad. This opportunity enabled Maria to return to Paris to pursue mathematics at the Sorbonne[4]. In 1894, she graduated, ranking second in her bachelor of mathematical sciences. While researching magnetism under Professor Lippmann, she sought a laboratory to conduct her experiments. During this search, she was introduced to Pierre Curie, a distinguished French physicist[5]. Maria’s cooperation with Piotr resulted in a marriage on July 26, 1895 and was only the beginning of an extraordinary tandem not only on the partnership level, but also on the scientific level.

Maria Skłodowska-Curie chose to focus her doctoral research on the study of uranium rays discovered by Henri Becquerel. She decided to diverge from the conventional methods used by her contemporaries in studying these new rays. One of her significant findings was that none of the known elements at the time, except for uranium and thorium, exhibited radioactivity. On April 12, 1898, she wrote a paper which was presented on her behalf by her mentor, Professor Gabriel Lippmann, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences. On July 18, 1898, the Curies reported to the Paris Academy of Sciences the discovery of a new radioactive substance in pitchblende and proposed naming the phenomenon “radioactivity”[6]. Maria also felt herself obliged to inform the Polish scientific community and she published an article in the monthly magazine “Światło,” initially using the term “promieniowalność” for radioactivity[7].

Their research led to the development of a treatment method using radium and other naturally occurring radioactive substances, primarily for treating malignant tumors. Later, Skłodowska-Curie defended her doctoral thesis and received significant recognition from the scientific community and the examination committee, which included high-ranking scientists who later became Nobel laureates. In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie, along with Henri Becquerel, were awarded by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of radioactivity[8]. Following Pierre’s tragic death, Marie continued their research, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. In 1911, she was awarded her second Nobel Prize, this time in Chemistry, for her work on radium and polonium. She successfully isolated radium as a pure metal, providing definitive evidence that radium is a chemical element. Her groundbreaking research laid the foundation for the development of radiotherapy, an essential tool in cancer treatment, and profoundly impacted the scientific understanding of radioactivity[9].

It is also noteworthy that the scientist played a crucial role in organizing radiological services on the front during World War I. This included a network of frontline ambulances equipped with portable X-ray machines. The discovery of radium and its effectiveness in treating cancer revolutionized the progress in treating these diseases. Various applicators were used for this purpose, such as radium collars and radium needles. Radioisotopes are utilized for diagnosing respiratory system efficiency. Modern diagnostic techniques, which trace their roots back to Marie’s discoveries, include highly specialized tests like positron emission tomography (PET). She dedicated the funds from her second Nobel Prize to the construction of the Radium Institute, where research in chemistry, physics, and medicine was conducted. This institute also became a breeding ground for Nobel laureates, with four recipients emerging from it[10].

Marie Curie’s daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, and her husband, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, carried on her legacy by advancing research in radioactivity and nuclear fission. In 1935, Irène and Frédéric were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery of artificial radioactivity. Their work significantly advanced the understanding of nuclear reactions and paved the way for the development of nuclear energy[11].

It is also worth remembering Marian Danysz, who made significant contributions to atomic science, earning a nomination for the Nobel Prize. Specifically, his discovery of hypernuclei was a pioneering step in the field of elementary physics. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country that had its observers at CERN (European Council for Nuclear Research – one of the world’s largest and most respected centers for scientific research in particle physics). This was largely possible due to private contacts between Polish physicists and their foreign colleagues. One of the Polish observers from 1970 to 1972 was Prof. Marian Danysz[12]. His father, Jan Kazimierz Danysz, was a student and collaborator of Skłodowska-Curie and the creator of beta-ray spectroscopy[13].

Contemporary research and projects

After World War I, the Nobel laureate, through Maria’s foundation, helped establish medical institutes for cancer treatment. Radium institutes, as centers for cancer treatment, were established in the 1930s not only in Europe but also worldwide. After World War II, Poland embarked on developing its nuclear research program. In 1955, the Institute for Nuclear Research was established in Świerk near Warsaw. This institute became the central hub for nuclear physics research and reactor technology development in Poland. One of the significant projects was the commissioning of the EWA (Experimental Water Reactor) in 1958. This reactor enabled extensive research on nuclear materials and reactor technology, marking a crucial milestone in Poland’s nuclear research capabilities[14]. Currently, MARIA is Poland’s only operating nuclear research reactor, located at the National Center for Nuclear Research (NCBJ) in Otwock, Świerk. The reactor became operational in 1974, primarily supporting scientific research, material testing, and the production of medical and industrial radioisotopes. MARIA supports research into nuclear energy, contributing to Poland’s efforts to develop safe and sustainable energy sources[15].

Poland boasts several leading research institutions in nuclear energy. The National Center for Nuclear Research (NCBJ) in Świerk conducts advanced research on reactor technologies and nuclear materials. NCBJ collaborates with international research organizations, including the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In her honor, prestigious fellowships are offered under her name, celebrating her legacy and supporting the next generation of scientists. Poland is also represented in the EUROfusion consortium by the Institute of Plasma Physics and Laser Microfusion. Research on fusion energy is conducted in Europe as part of the research and training program of the European Atomic Energy Community EURATOM[16].

Conclusion

Polish nuclear research has significant implications for both national and international scientific communities. The development of nuclear energy in Poland enhances energy security and reduces reliance on fossil fuels. Nuclear power plants, as low-emission energy sources, play a vital role in combating climate change. Poland is also actively involved in research on new nuclear technologies, such as Generation IV reactors and Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)[17]. These technologies have the potential to increase the safety and efficiency of nuclear energy, and Polish scientists are making substantial contributions to these efforts.

Despite the numerous benefits, the development of nuclear energy in Poland faces several challenges. Public acceptance remains a major issue, with concerns about reactor safety and radioactive waste management requiring transparent communication and education. The history of Polish nuclear energy research, from Maria Skłodowska-Curie to contemporary projects, highlights the country’s significant contributions to science and technology. Curie’s work laid the foundations for modern nuclear research, and Poland continues to advance in this field, ensuring energy security and sustainability. Currently, numerous Polish universities, medical, and research facilities are named after this scientist, as well as places all over the world. Despite the challenges, Poland is committed to developing safe and sustainable nuclear energy, drawing inspiration from the scientific legacy of Maria Skłodowska-Curie and her groundbreaking achievements.

Maria Skłodowska-Curie’s success is a testament to her relentless dedication and hard work, overcoming numerous challenges and the restrictions placed on women in her time. Despite the societal limitations, she broke barriers and achieved unprecedented accomplishments in science. It is crucial to remember and honor her legacy, emphasizing her dual heritage by using her full name, Maria Skłodowska-Curie, as she wished. This not only acknowledges her contributions to science but also her proud Polish identity, often overlooked abroad. Her story continues to inspire generations, demonstrating the power of perseverance and the importance of recognizing one’s roots.

Author:

Jarocińska Paulina Natalia is a doctoral student at East China Normal University in Shanghai. Her core research interests revolve around the impact of social media on politics, populism, European integration and EU – China relations.

References

Skwarzec, B. (2011) Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934) — jej życie i odkrycia naukowe. Forum Medycyny Rodzinnej 2011, tom 5, nr 3, 251–265.
Gasińska, A. (1999) Life and Work of Marie Sklodowska-Curie and her Family, Acta Oncologica, 38:7, 823-828, DOI: 10.1080/028418699432509.
Fröman, N. Marie and Pierre Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium. December 1st, 1996. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/marie-and-pierre-curie-and-the-discovery-of-polonium-and-radium/.
Rafalska-Łasocha, A. (2013) Kontakty Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie ze środowiskiem krakowskim. Polska Akademia Umiejętności. Prace Komisji Historii Nauki PAU. vol. 12. p. 33-66.
Krawczyk, M. Maria Skłodowska-Curie i jej wkład w medycynę. December 28th, 2021. https://teologiapolityczna.pl/marek-krawczyk-maria-sklodowska-curie-i-jej-wklad-w-medycyne.
IRÈNE JOLIOT-CURIE. The Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/womenwhochangedscience/stories/irene-joliot-curie.
Marian Danysz i jego nowa “cegiełka” w jądrze atomu. February 9th, 2024. https://www.polskieradio.pl/39/156/artykul/2022175,marian-danysz-i-jego-nowa-cegielka-w-jadrze-atomu.
Stroński, I. Jan Kazimierz Danysz. W czterdziestą rocznicę śmierci. Katedra Chemii Jądrowej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. info.ifpan.edu.pl/ON-1/Historia/art/7dan.pdf.
EWA reactor launched 60 years ago. National Centre for Nuclear Research. June 7th, 2023. https://www.ncbj.gov.pl/en/aktualnosci/ewa-reactor-launched-60-years-ago.
Poland’s MARIA research reactor to be upgraded. Nuclear Engineering International. June 27th, 2023. https://www.neimagazine.com/news/polands-maria-research-reactor-to-be-upgraded-10967727/?cf-view.
Udział Polski w przełomowym sukcesie badań nad syntezą jądrową. Insytut Plazmy i Laserowej Mikrosyntezy. 2022. https://www.ifpilm.pl/17-news/krajowe/1789-udzial-polski-w-przelomowym-sukcesie-badan-nad-synteza-jadrowa.
Six SMR power plants approved in Poland. World Nuclear News. December 8th, 2023. https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Six-SMR-power-plants-approved-in-Poland.

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[1] Skwarzec, B. (2011) Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934) — jej życie i odkrycia naukowe. Forum Medycyny Rodzinnej 2011, tom 5, nr 3, 251–265.

[2] Gasińska, A. (1999) Life and Work of Marie Sklodowska-Curie and her Family, Acta Oncologica, 38:7, 823-828, DOI: 10.1080/028418699432509.

[3] Ibidem.

[4] Ibidem.

[5] Skwarzec, B. (2011) Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934) — jej życie i odkrycia naukowe…

[6] Fröman, N. Marie and Pierre Curie and the discovery of polonium and radium. December 1st, 1996. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/marie-and-pierre-curie-and-the-discovery-of-polonium-and-radium/.

[7] Rafalska-Łasocha, A. (2013) Kontakty Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie ze środowiskiem krakowskim. Polska Akademia Umiejętności. Prace Komisji Historii Nauki PAU. vol. 12. p. 33-66.

[8] Skwarzec, B. (2011) Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934) — jej życie i odkrycia naukowe…

[9] Ibidem.

[10] Krawczyk, M. Maria Skłodowska-Curie i jej wkład w medycynę. December 28th, 2021. https://teologiapolityczna.pl/marek-krawczyk-maria-sklodowska-curie-i-jej-wklad-w-medycyne.

[11] IRÈNE JOLIOT-CURIE. The Nobel Prize. https://www.nobelprize.org/womenwhochangedscience/stories/irene-joliot-curie.

[12] Marian Danysz i jego nowa “cegiełka” w jądrze atomu. February 9th, 2024. https://www.polskieradio.pl/39/156/artykul/2022175,marian-danysz-i-jego-nowa-cegielka-w-jadrze-atomu.

[13] Stroński, I. Jan Kazimierz Danysz. W czterdziestą rocznicę śmierci. Katedra Chemii Jądrowej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. info.ifpan.edu.pl/ON-1/Historia/art/7dan.pdf.

[14] EWA reactor launched 60 years ago. National Centre for Nuclear Research. June 7th, 2023. https://www.ncbj.gov.pl/en/aktualnosci/ewa-reactor-launched-60-years-ago.

[15] Poland’s MARIA research reactor to be upgraded. Nuclear Engineering International. June 27th, 2023. https://www.neimagazine.com/news/polands-maria-research-reactor-to-be-upgraded-10967727/?cf-view.

[16] Udział Polski w przełomowym sukcesie badań nad syntezą jądrową. Insytut Plazmy i Laserowej Mikrosyntezy. 2022. https://www.ifpilm.pl/17-news/krajowe/1789-udzial-polski-w-przelomowym-sukcesie-badan-nad-synteza-jadrowa.

[17] Six SMR power plants approved in Poland. World Nuclear News. December 8th, 2023. https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Six-SMR-power-plants-approved-in-Poland.

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The „Dumni z Polski/Proud of Poland/Stolz auf Polen” project was funded by the National Institute of Freedom – Centre for Civil Society Development as part of the Government’s Youth Fund Programme 2022-2033.

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